Perceptions of Parents Scales – College Student

Abstract

The Perceptions of Parents Scales (POPS) – College Student version is a specialized self-report instrument designed to measure young adults’ recollections and current perceptions of their parents’ behavioral styles. Specifically developed within the theoretical framework of Self-Determination Theory (SDT), the scale assesses two crucial dimensions of parental functioning: Parental Involvement/Warmth and Parental Autonomy Support versus Psychological Control. This 42-item scale requires college students to rate their mother and father separately, providing valuable data on how perceived parental environment contributes to the student’s psychological adjustment, motivation, and overall well-being during the critical transition into adulthood.

Keywords

Parental Perception, Autonomy Support, Psychological Control, Parental Involvement, Self-Determination Theory, College Students, Parenting Styles, Relationship Quality, Psychometrics

Authors

Wendy S. Grolnick, Richard M. Ryan, Edward L. Deci

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Purpose

The primary purpose of the Perceptions of Parents Scales (POPS) is to provide a reliable and differentiated assessment of how college students characterize their relationship with their parents. Unlike measures that focus solely on broad attachment styles, the POPS specifically targets behaviors related to the provision of structure, emotional warmth, and, most importantly, the degree to which parents support or thwart the student’s need for autonomy and self-initiation.

This scale is particularly useful in developmental and educational psychology research to investigate the long-term impact of perceived parental styles on academic motivation, internalization of values, and adjustment to college life. By separating ratings for mother and father, researchers can explore distinct influences of each parent on the young adult’s development.

Construct

The POPS measures two distinct, yet related, dimensions of parental behavior, which are central to Self-Determination Theory (SDT):

• Parental Involvement/Warmth: This dimension captures the degree to which a parent expresses love, caring, and genuine interest in the child’s life and concerns. High scores indicate that the parent is perceived as available, affectionate, and attuned to the student’s emotional needs (e.g., “My mother clearly conveys her love for me”).
• Parental Autonomy Support vs. Psychological Control: This dimension assesses the extent to which the parent encourages independent decision-making, acknowledges the student’s perspective, and provides rationales for rules (Autonomy Support), versus the extent to which the parent uses controlling tactics, demands specific outcomes, or employs guilt induction (Psychological Control). Items reflecting control are often reverse-scored to create an Autonomy Support subscale (e.g., “My father insists upon my doing things his way”).

These constructs are crucial for understanding how the perceived social environment facilitates or hinders the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) postulated by SDT.

Validity

Extensive research supports the Construct Validity of the POPS. Studies have consistently demonstrated that scores on the Parental Autonomy Support subscale are positively correlated with indicators of healthy functioning, such as intrinsic motivation, self-esteem, academic success, and psychological well-being among college students.

Conversely, high scores on the Psychological Control dimension correlate positively with maladaptive outcomes, including external regulation of behavior, depression, anxiety, and lower self-worth. The scale exhibits strong discriminant validity, showing that parental involvement (warmth) and autonomy support are empirically separable constructs, though often positively correlated in adaptive Parenting Styles.

Reliability

The POPS demonstrates high internal consistency across multiple samples of college students. Reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) for the subscales typically fall within the acceptable to excellent range (α > .80). Specifically, the Parental Involvement/Warmth subscale and the Parental Autonomy Support subscale for both mother and father figures generally yield alphas ranging from .85 to .92, suggesting that the items within each dimension measure a cohesive underlying concept. Test-retest reliability has also been established, indicating stability of perceptions over short periods.

Factor Analysis

Confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses (CFA/EFA) performed on the POPS data generally support a robust two-factor structure for perceptions of both the mother and the father separately. These analyses confirm that the 42 items load distinctly onto the two hypothesized dimensions: Parental Involvement (Warmth) and Parental Autonomy Support/Control. The factor structure is stable across diverse cultural and demographic groups, confirming the cross-cultural relevance of the constructs measured by the scale. The clear separation of these factors provides strong evidence for the theoretical distinctions drawn within Self-Determination Theory regarding optimal parental behavior.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report Questionnaire

Format: Paper-and-pencil or digital administration. The scale uses a 7-point Likert Scale format.

Language Available: Primarily English, with translations validated in numerous languages globally (e.g., Spanish, Chinese, French, German) for use in cross-cultural research.

Population Group: Young Adults/College Students

Age Group: Typically 18 to 25 years old

Population Details: The scale is designed for individuals who have the cognitive capacity to reflect on and evaluate their ongoing or past relationships with primary caregivers. Instructions allow for substitution of stepparents or other primary same-gender caregivers if biological parents are absent.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate the extent to which each item is true of their mother and father (or substitute caregiver) using the following scale:

• 1: not at all true
• 4: somewhat true
• 7: very true

Scoring involves calculating average scores for the Involvement and Autonomy Support subscales for each parent. Items reflecting control or lack of involvement are typically reverse-scored prior to aggregation.

Keywords

Parental Control, College Adjustment, Psychological Needs, Psychometric Properties, Academic Motivation, Internalization, Parental Behavior, Self-report

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Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not uniformly available; typically associated with the institutional websites of the authors (University of Rochester, Clark University).

Affiliation Email addresses: Contact information usually maintained through the Self-Determination Theory organization website.

Correspondence Address: Correspondence is generally directed to the primary researchers associated with Self-Determination Theory, such as Richard M. Ryan or Edward L. Deci, at the University of Rochester.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The POPS is generally considered a research instrument developed within the academic community. Permissions for non-commercial research use are often granted freely upon request to the authors or through the Self-Determination Theory organization website. Commercial or clinical use may require formal licensing. The scale was developed and first published in its standardized form around the early 1990s, with key psychometric validation occurring in publications such as Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci (1991).

Reference’s

The primary theoretical and empirical basis for the POPS is found in the literature supporting Self-Determination Theory and parental styles research, including:

1. Grolnick, W. S., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1991). Inner resources for school achievement: Motivational mediators of children’s perceptions of their parents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(4), 508-517.
2. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.
3. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness. Guilford Press.

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Items of the Perceptions of Parents Scales – College Student

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

Perceptions of Parents Scales (POPS)

The College-Student Scale

Thoughts about My Parents

Please answer the following questions about your mother and your father. If you do not have any contact with one of your parents (for example‚ your father)‚ but there is another adult of the same gender living with your house (for example‚ a stepfather) then please answer the questions about that other adult.

If you have no contact with one of your parents‚ and there is not another adult of that same gender with whom

you live‚ then leave the questions about that parent blank.

Please use the following scale:

1 (not at all true) to 7 (very true), with 4 being somewhat true.

First‚ questions about your mother.

1. My mother seems to know how I feel about things.
2. My mother tries to tell me how to run my life.
3. My mother finds time to talk with me.
4. My mother accepts me and likes me as I am.
5. My mother‚ whenever possible‚ allows me to choose what to do.
6. My mother doesn’t seem to think of me often.
7. My mother clearly conveys her love for me.
8. My mother listens to my opinion or perspective when I’ve got a problem.
9. My mother spends a lot of time with me.
10. My mother makes me feel very special.
11. My mother allows me to decide things for myself.
12. My mother often seems too busy to attend to me.
13. My mother is often disapproving and unaccepting of me.
14. My mother insists upon my doing things her way.
15. My mother is not very involved with my concerns.
16. My mother is typically happy to see me.
17. My mother is usually willing to consider things from my point of view.
18. My mother puts time and energy into helping me.
19. My mother helps me to choose my own direction.
20. My mother seems to be disappointed in me a lot.
21. My mother isn’t very sensitive to many of my needs.

Now questions about your father.

22. My father seems to know how I feel about things.
23. My father tries to tell me how to run my life.
24. My father finds time to talk with me.
25. My father accepts me and likes me as I am.
26. My father‚ whenever possible‚ allows me to choose what to do.
27. My father doesn’t seem to think of me often.
28. My father clearly conveys his love for me.
29. My father listens to my opinion or perspective when I’ve got a problem.
30. My father spends a lot of time with me.
31. My father makes me feel very special.
32. My father allows me to decide things for myself.
33. My father often seems too busy to attend to me.
34. My father is often disapproving and unaccepting of me.
35. My father insists upon my doing things his way.
36. My father is not very involved with my concerns.
37. My father is typically happy to see me.
38. My father is usually willing to consider things from my point of view.
39. My father puts time and energy into helping me.
40. My father helps me to choose my own direction.
41. My father seems to be disappointed in me a lot.
42. My father isn’t very sensitive to many of my needs.