Perceptions of Parents Scales – Child

Abstract

The Perceptions of Parents Scales (POPS) – Child version is a specialized self-report instrument designed to assess a child’s subjective experience of their relationship with their primary caregivers (mother and father figures). This scale is rooted in the framework of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and measures crucial dimensions of parental behavior, including the degree of involvement, the level of structure provided, and the extent of autonomy support versus psychological control exhibited by each parent. The child responds to forced-choice items that describe four distinct types of parental behavior, allowing researchers to quantify perceived differences in parenting styles and their potential impact on the child’s motivation and adjustment.

Keywords

Parental Perceptions, Self-Determination Theory, Autonomy Support, Psychological Control, Parental Involvement, Child Scale, Parenting Styles, Basic Psychological Needs, Child Development

Authors

Wendy S. Grolnick, Richard M. Ryan, Edward L. Deci

Purpose

The primary purpose of the POPS-Child scale is to provide a reliable measure of the child’s perception of the socialization environment created by their parents. Researchers use this instrument to investigate how perceived parental behaviors—specifically those related to emotional availability, provision of structure, and granting of independence—are associated with a child’s motivational resources, academic competence, and overall psychological adjustment. This scale is particularly valuable in testing hypotheses related to the differential effects of maternal and paternal parenting on child outcomes.

Construct

The POPS-Child scale measures constructs central to the study of social development and motivation, most notably the dimensions of parental Autonomy Support and Psychological Control. Autonomy support refers to the extent to which parents acknowledge the child’s perspective, provide rationale for rules, and encourage self-initiation. Conversely, psychological control involves parental tactics that manipulate the child through guilt induction, conditional regard, or excessive monitoring, thereby undermining the child’s sense of self and intrinsic motivation. The scale also captures aspects of Parental Involvement, focusing on the time and attention given to the child’s activities and problems.

Validity

Extensive research supporting the POPS scale demonstrates strong evidence of construct validity. The factor structure consistently differentiates between perceptions of the mother and the father, and the subscales (Autonomy Support/Involvement vs. Control) show expected correlations with other established measures of parenting style and child functioning. Specifically, perceived autonomy support is typically positively correlated with measures of child self-esteem, intrinsic motivation, and academic achievement, while perceived control correlates positively with indicators of maladjustment, such as anxiety and externalizing behaviors. The forced-choice format enhances validity by minimizing social desirability bias inherent in typical Likert scales, forcing respondents to choose the best fit among qualitatively different parenting descriptions.

Reliability

The reliability of the POPS-Child scale has been established across multiple studies. Internal consistency, often measured using Cronbach’s alpha, generally falls within acceptable ranges for psychological scales, particularly for the main subscales (e.g., Autonomy Support and Parental Involvement). Test-retest reliability has been shown to be adequate over short periods, confirming the stability of children’s perceptions of their parents. Given that the scale uses a forced-choice format rather than summing standard Likert items, reliability assessment often focuses on the consistency of factor loadings across different samples.

Factor Analysis

Factor analytic studies typically confirm a clear, multidimensional structure for the POPS, separating parental perceptions into distinct components corresponding to involvement/warmth and control/autonomy-undermining behavior. Crucially, the items related to the mother and the father load onto separate factors, reinforcing the necessity of assessing parental figures independently. The underlying factor structure aligns well with the theoretical tenets of Self-Determination Theory, demonstrating that children perceive parental behaviors along continua of supportive care versus coercive control, which are distinct constructs impacting Psychological Needs satisfaction.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-Report Questionnaire (Perceptual Measure)

Format: Forced-Choice format, where the respondent selects one of four descriptive statements that best characterizes the parent.

Language Available: Primarily English, though adaptations exist in various European and Asian languages.

Population Group: Children and early adolescents.

Age Group: Typically 8 to 14 years old (Middle Childhood through Early Adolescence).

Population Details: Used across diverse general population and clinical samples. Suitable for children who possess basic reading comprehension skills necessary to understand the nuances of the four descriptive statements per item.

Test Methodology: The scale is administered in two sections: one focusing on the mother (or primary female caregiver) and one focusing on the father (or primary male caregiver). The child is instructed to read four descriptions for each item and select the one that most accurately reflects their parent’s typical behavior.

Keywords

Parenting Measures, Forced-Choice Scale, Maternal Control, Paternal Involvement, Affective Parenting, SDT Measures, Child Motivation, Family Psychology

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: [Information not provided in source; requires external lookup]

Affiliation Email addresses: [Information not provided in source; contact Self-Determination Theory website for current correspondence]

Correspondence Address: [Information not provided in source; typically affiliated with the University of Rochester or similar SDT research hubs]

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Perceptions of Parents Scales (POPS) are generally considered proprietary instruments developed by researchers associated with the Self-Determination Theory framework. They are often made available for non-commercial academic research purposes, typically without a fee, though formal permission must be sought from the primary authors or the administrative body managing the SDT measures. The original version of the POPS related measures was developed and published around 1991.

Reference’s

• Grolnick, W. S., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1991). Inner resources for school achievement: Motivational mediators of children’s perceptions of their parents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(4), 508–517.

• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268.

• The scale and associated research are often referenced on the official Self-Determination Theory website.

Items of the Perceptions of Parents Scales – Child

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

Things About My Parents

We are interested to know more about your mother and your father. First we will ask about your mother‚ and then we will ask about your father.

Each number is followed by four statements that describe four different types of parents. For some‚ there will be a description of four types of mothers‚ and for others there will be descriptions of four types of fathers. In either case‚ read the four statements about the four types of mothers or fathers‚ and decide which one is the best description of your own mother or father. Different people’s mothers and fathers are different‚ and we want to know about yours.

Now please think about your mother and compare her to these descriptions of people’s mothers. If you do not ever spend time with your mother but another woman lives in your household instead‚ please respond about that woman. So‚ begin with number 1‚ and read the four descriptions. If your mother is most like the mothers in the first statement‚ then circle the letter a in front of that statement. If she is most like the mothers in the second statement‚ then circle the letter b in front of that statement. If she is most like the mothers in the third statement‚ then circle the letter c in front of that statement. If she is most like the mothers in the fourth statement‚ then circle the letter d in front of that statement.

1.

• a. Some mothers never have enough time to talk to their children.

• b. Some mothers usually don’t have enough time to talk to their children.

• c. Some mothers sometimes have enough time to talk to their children.

• d. Some mothers always have enough time to talk to their children.

2.

• a. Some mothers always explain to their children about the way they should behave.

• b. Some mothers sometimes explain to their children about the way they should behave.

• c. Some mothers sometimes make their children behave because they’re the boss.

• d. Some mothers always make their children behave because they’re the boss.

3.

• a. Some mothers always ask their children what they did in school that day.

• b. Some mothers usually ask their children what they did in school that day.

• c. Some mothers usually don’t ask their children what they did in school that day.

• d. Some mothers never ask their children what they did in school that day.

4.

• a. Some mothers always get very upset if their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

• b. Some mothers sometimes get very upset if their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

• c. Some mothers sometimes try to understand why their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

• d. Some mothers always try to understand why their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

5.

• a. Some mothers always have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

• b. Some mothers sometimes have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

• c. Some mothers don’t always have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

• d. Some mothers never have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

6.

• a. Some mothers never punish their children; they always talk to their children about what was wrong.

• b. Some mothers hardly ever punish their children; they usually talk to their children about what was wrong.

• c. Some mothers usually punish their children when they’ve done something wrong without talking to them very much.

• d. Some mothers always punish their children when they’ve done something wrong without talking to them at all.

7.

• a. Some mothers always tell their children what to do.

• b. Some mothers sometimes tell their children what to do.

• c. Some mothers sometimes like their children to decide for themselves what to do.

• d. Some mothers always like their children to decide for themselves what to do.

8.

• a. Some mothers always think it’s OK if their children make mistakes.

• b. Some mothers sometimes think it’s OK if their children make mistakes.

• c. Some mothers always get angry if their children make mistakes.

• d. Some mothers sometimes get angry if their children make mistakes.

9.

• a. Some mothers never want to know what their children are doing.

• b. Some mothers usually don’t want to know what their children are doing.

• c. Some mothers sometimes want to know what their children are doing.

• d. Some mothers always want to know what their children are doing.

10.

• a. Some mothers always get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

• b. Some mothers sometimes get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

• c. Some mothers hardly ever get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

• d. Some mothers never get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

11.

• a. Some mothers always like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

• b. Some mothers sometimes like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

• c. Some mothers usually don’t like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

• d. Some mothers never like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

Now‚ please think about your father. If you do not see your father but some other man lives in your household‚ please respond about that man.

12.

• a. Some fathers never have enough time to talk to their children.

• b. Some fathers usually don’t have enough time to talk to their children.

• c. Some fathers sometimes have enough time to talk to their children.

• d. Some fathers always have enough time to talk to their children.

13 .

• a. Some fathers always explain to their children about the way they should behave.

• b. Some fathers sometimes explain to their children about the way they should behave.

• c. Some fathers sometimes make their children behave because they’re the boss.

• d. Some fathers always make their children behave because they’re the boss.

14.

• a. Some fathers always ask their children what they did in school that day.

• b. Some fathers usually ask their children what they did in school that day.

• c. Some fathers usually don’t ask their children what they did in school that day.

• d. Some fathers never ask their children what they did in school that day.

15.

• a. Some fathers always get very upset if their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

• b. Some fathers sometimes get very upset if their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

• c. Some fathers sometimes try to understand why their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

• d. Some fathers always try to understand why their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

16.

• a. Some fathers always have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

• b. Some fathers sometimes have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

• c. Some fathers don’t always have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

• d. Some fathers never have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

17.

• a. Some fathers never punish their children; they always talk to their children about what was wrong.

• b. Some fathers hardly ever punish their children; they usually talk to their children about what was wrong.

• c. Some fathers usually punish their children when they’ve done something wrong without talking to them very much.

• d. Some fathers always punish their children when they’ve done something wrong without talking to them at all.

18.

• a. Some fathers always tell their children what to do.

• b. Some fathers sometimes tell their children what to do.

• c. Some fathers sometimes like their children to decide for themselves what to do.

• d. Some fathers always like their children to decide for themselves what to do.

19.

• a. Some fathers always think it’s OK if their children make mistakes.

• b. Some fathers sometimes think it’s OK if their children make mistakes.

• c. Some fathers always get angry if their children make mistakes.

• d. Some fathers sometimes get angry if their children make mistakes.

20.

• a. Some fathers never want to know what their children are doing.

• b. Some fathers usually don’t want to know what their children are doing.

• c. Some fathers sometimes want to know what their children are doing.

• d. Some fathers always want to know what their children are doing.

21.

• a. Some fathers always get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

• b. Some fathers sometimes get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

• c. Some fathers hardly ever get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

• d. Some fathers never get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

22.

• a. Some fathers always like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

• b. Some fathers sometimes like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

• c. Some fathers usually don’t like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

• d. Some fathers never like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.