Perceptions of Parents Scales (POPS)

Abstract

The Perceptions of Parents Scales (POPS) are psychometric instruments designed to measure the degree to which parents provide an optimal parenting context, primarily guided by the principles of Self-Determination Theory (SDT). These scales capture the child’s subjective perception of their mother’s and father’s behaviors across crucial dimensions of caregiving. The POPS exist in two primary forms: a Child Scale, which assesses perceived Autonomy Support and Involvement; and a College-Student Scale, which measures Autonomy Support, Involvement, and Warmth. The instrument is utilized to understand the familial factors that mediate children’s motivation, internalization of values, and overall psychological adjustment.

Keywords

Perceptions of Parents Scales, POPS, Self-Determination Theory, SDT, Autonomy Support, Parental Involvement, Parental Warmth, Parenting Context, Child psychology, Adolescence, Self-regulation.

Authors

Wendy S. Grolnick, Edward L. Deci, Richard M. Ryan, Robert J. Robbins.

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Purpose

The central purpose of the POPS is to quantify the subjective experience of parental behavior from the child’s perspective, focusing on behaviors that facilitate intrinsic motivation and psychological well-being, consistent with SDT principles. By measuring children’s perceptions of both their mother and father, the scale allows for differentiated analysis of the parental environment.

Specifically, the scale aims to assess parental dimensions considered crucial for optimal child development: the extent to which parents support their children’s agency and self-initiation (Autonomy Support), and the degree to which they invest resources, time, and attention in their children’s lives (Involvement). The college-student version extends this assessment to include the perceived emotional climate through the measure of Warmth.

Construct

The POPS measures the perceived quality of the parent-child relationship across several core constructs derived from Self-Determination Theory. These constructs are measured separately for mothers and fathers across both versions of the scale.

The constructs assessed include: Autonomy Support, which involves explaining expectations, understanding the child’s perspective, and minimizing controlling behaviors; and Involvement, defined as devoting resources (e.g., being available, knowledgeable about the child’s life, and concerned). The college-student version adds a third crucial construct, Warmth, which captures the degree of affection, acceptance, and positive regard conveyed by the parent.

Validity

Preliminary evidence for the validity of the college-student version was established in the doctoral dissertation by Robbins (1994). This work demonstrated that perceived parental Autonomy Support was significantly linked to positive autonomy-related child outcomes, including higher self-esteem, better self-regulation, improved mental health, and favorable causality orientations.

Furthermore, high perceived parental Autonomy Support was associated with greater vitality and self-actualization, whereas low perceived support was linked to increased difficulty in separation-individuation processes. A subsequent longitudinal study by Niemiec, Ryan, and Deci (2009) provided additional evidence supporting the scale’s validity and reliability.

Correlational data from parents of college students also supported the measure’s external validity, showing that student perceptions of paternal Autonomy Support were positively associated with the fathers’ own self-reported self-esteem and mental health. Similarly, perceived maternal Autonomy Support correlated positively with autonomous causality orientation in mothers.

Reliability

The initial development and validation work conducted by Robbins (1994) provided preliminary evidence for the reliability of the college-student scale. Further substantiation of the reliability and consistency of the scale scores was provided by a subsequent longitudinal study published by Niemiec, Ryan, and Deci in 2009.

These studies, while not providing specific psychometric indices such as Cronbach’s alpha in the source summary, confirm the instrument’s capacity to consistently measure the intended parental dimensions across different studies and populations, thereby demonstrating adequate reliability for psychological research.

Factor Analysis

For the Child version of the POPS (developed by Grolnick, Ryan, and Deci, 1991), formal Factor Analysis revealed a clear four-factor solution. This solution supports the conceptual separation of the constructs and the differentiation between parents.

The four factors identified are: Mother Involvement, Mother Autonomy Support, Father Involvement, and Father Autonomy Support. This confirms that the scale effectively separates the two main parental figures and the two core parenting dimensions being measured.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-Report Questionnaire (Perceptual Measure)

Format: The Child Scale is a 22-item questionnaire using a forced-choice format where respondents circle one of four descriptive options. The College-Student Scale is a 42-item questionnaire using a 7-point Likert-type scale.

Language Available: English (Original development language)

Population Group: Children, Late Adolescents, and College Students

Age Group: Children (as young as 8 years old) and Older Adolescents/Adults

Population Details: Used to assess the perceived parenting style of the mother and father (or equivalent primary caregivers) within educational or research settings.

Test Methodology: Responses are scored to produce subscale averages. The Child Scale yields four subscales (Mother Involvement, Mother Autonomy Support, Father Involvement, Father Autonomy Support). The College-Student Scale yields six subscales (Mother Involvement, Mother Autonomy Support, Mother Warmth, Father Involvement, Father Autonomy Support, Father Warmth). Specific items require reverse scoring prior to calculation.

Keywords

Parental control, Psychological need satisfaction, Reliability, Validity, Factor Analysis, Self-regulation, Mental health, Self-esteem, Self-actualization.

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Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A (Information not provided in source)

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A (Information not provided in source)

Correspondence Address: N/A (Information not provided in source)

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Child Scale (POPS) was first published in 1991 (Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci). The College-Student Scale was developed in 1994 (Robbins). The scales are generally associated with researchers linked to the Self-Determination Theory group. Specific details regarding current usage permissions and associated fees are not detailed in the source material.

Reference’s

Grolnick, W. S., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1997). Internalization within the family: The self-determination theory perspective. In J. E. Grusec & L. Kuczynski (Eds.), Parenting and children’s internalization of values: A handbook of contemporary theory (pp. 135-161). New York: Wiley.

Grolnick, W. S., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1991). The inner resources for school performance: Motivational mediators of children’s perceptions of their parents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 508-517.

Robbins, R. J. (1994). An assessment of perceptions of parental autonomy support and control: Child and parent correlates. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, 1994.

Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2009). The path taken: Consequences of attaining intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations in post-college life. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 291-306.

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Items of the Perceptions of Parents Scales (POPS)

The Child Scale

Name:_______________________________________________________________

Teacher: _______________________________________________________________

Boy or Girl (circle one)

Age: _________________________________________________________________

Things About My Parents

We are interested to know more about your mother and your father. First we will ask about your mother, and then we will ask about your father.

Each number is followed by four statements that describe four different types of parents. For some, there will be a description of four types of mothers, and for others there will be descriptions of four types of fathers. In either case, read the four statements about the four types of mothers or fathers, and decide which one is the best description of your own mother or father. Different people’s mothers and fathers are different, and we want to know about yours.

Now please think about your mother and compare her to these descriptions of people’s mothers. If you do not ever spend time with your mother but another woman lives in your household instead, please respond about that woman. So, begin with number 1, and read the four descriptions. If your mother is most like the mothers in the first statement, then circle the letter a in front of that statement. If she is most like the mothers in the second statement, then circle the letter b in front of that statement. If she is most like the mothers in the third statement, then circle the letter c in front of that statement. If she is most like the mothers in the fourth statement, then circle the letter d in front of that statement.

1. a. Some mothers never have enough time to talk to their children.

b. Some mothers usually don’t have enough time to talk to their children.

c. Some mothers sometimes have enough time to talk to their children.

d. Some mothers always have enough time to talk to their children.

2. a. Some mothers always explain to their children about the way they should behave.

b. Some mothers sometimes explain to their children about the way they should behave.

c. Some mothers sometimes make their children behave because they’re the boss.

d. Some mothers always make their children behave because they’re the boss.

3. a. Some mothers always ask their children what they did in school that day.

b. Some mothers usually ask their children what they did in school that day.

c. Some mothers usually don’t ask their children what they did in school that day.

d. Some mothers never ask their children what they did in school that day.

4. a. Some mothers always get very upset if their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

b. Some mothers sometimes get very upset if their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

c. Some mothers sometimes try to understand why their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

d. Some mothers always try to understand why their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

5. a. Some mothers always have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

b. Some mothers sometimes have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

c. Some mothers don’t always have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

d. Some mothers never have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

6. a. Some mothers never punish their children; they always talk to their children about what was wrong.

b. Some mothers hardly ever punish their children; they usually talk to their children about what was wrong.

c. Some mothers usually punish their children when they’ve done something wrong without talking to them very much.

d. Some mothers always punish their children when they’ve done something wrong without talking to them at all.

7. a. Some mothers always tell their children what to do.

b. Some mothers sometimes tell their children what to do.

c. Some mothers sometimes like their children to decide for themselves what to do.

d. Some mothers always like their children to decide for themselves what to do.

8. a. Some mothers always think it’s OK if their children make mistakes.

b. Some mothers sometimes think it’s OK if their children make mistakes.

c. Some mothers always get angry if their children make mistakes.

d. Some mothers sometimes get angry if their children make mistakes.

9. a. Some mothers never want to know what their children are doing.

b. Some mothers usually don’t want to know what their children are doing.

c. Some mothers sometimes want to know what their children are doing.

d. Some mothers always want to know what their children are doing.

10. a. Some mothers always get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

b. Some mothers sometimes get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

c. Some mothers hardly ever get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

d. Some mothers never get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

11. a. Some mothers always like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

b. Some mothers sometimes like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

c. Some mothers usually don’t like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

d. Some mothers never like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

Now, please think about your father. If you do not see your father but some other man lives in your household, please respond about that man.

12. a. Some fathers never have enough time to talk to their children.

b. Some fathers usually don’t have enough time to talk to their children.

c. Some fathers sometimes have enough time to talk to their children.

d. Some fathers always have enough time to talk to their children.

13. a. Some fathers always explain to their children about the way they should behave.

b. Some fathers sometimes explain to their children about the way they should behave.

c. Some fathers sometimes make their children behave because they’re the boss.

d. Some fathers always make their children behave because they’re the boss.

14. a. Some fathers always ask their children what they did in school that day.

b. Some fathers usually ask their children what they did in school that day.

c. Some fathers usually don’t ask their children what they did in school that day.

d. Some fathers never ask their children what they did in school that day.

15. a. Some fathers always get very upset if their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

b. Some fathers sometimes get very upset if their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

c. Some fathers sometimes try to understand why their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

d. Some fathers always try to understand why their children don’t do what they’re supposed to right away.

16. a. Some fathers always have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

b. Some fathers sometimes have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

c. Some fathers don’t always have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

d. Some fathers never have the time to talk about their children’s problem.

17. a. Some fathers never punish their children; they always talk to their children about what was wrong.

b. Some fathers hardly ever punish their children; they usually talk to their children about what was wrong.

c. Some fathers usually punish their children when they’ve done something wrong without talking to them very much.

d. Some fathers always punish their children when they’ve done something wrong without talking to them at all.

18. a. Some fathers always tell their children what to do.

b. Some fathers sometimes tell their children what to do.

c. Some fathers sometimes like their children to decide for themselves what to do.

d. Some fathers always like their children to decide for themselves what to do.

19. a. Some fathers always think it’s OK if their children make mistakes.

b. Some fathers sometimes think it’s OK if their children make mistakes.

c. Some fathers always get angry if their children make mistakes.

d. Some fathers sometimes get angry if their children make mistakes.

20. a. Some fathers never want to know what their children are doing.

b. Some fathers usually don’t want to know what their children are doing.

c. Some fathers sometimes want to know what their children are doing.

d. Some fathers always want to know what their children are doing.

21. a. Some fathers always get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

b. Some fathers sometimes get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

c. Some fathers hardly ever get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

d. Some fathers never get upset when their children don’t do well in school.

22. a. Some fathers always like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

b. Some fathers sometimes like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

c. Some fathers usually don’t like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

d. Some fathers never like to talk to their children’s teachers about how they are doing in school.

Scoring Information. First score the following items on a scale from 1 to 4 (i.e., the four options are ordered from being low on the subscale to being high): 1, 4, 7, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20, 21. Then, score the following items from 4 to 1 (i.e., the four options are ordered from being high on the subscale to being low): 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19. Next compute the following subscale scores by averaging all items within a given subscale.

The College-Student Scale

Thoughts about My Parents

Please answer the following questions about your mother and your father. If you do not have any contact with one of your parents (for example, your father), but there is another adult of the same gender living with your house (for example, a stepfather) then please answer the questions about that other adult.

If you have no contact with one of your parents, and there is not another adult of that same gender with whom you live, then leave the questions about that parent blank.

Please use the following scale:

First, questions about your mother.

1. My mother seems to know how I feel about things.

2. My mother tries to tell me how to run my life.

3 My mother finds time to talk with me.

4. My mother accepts me and likes me as I am.

5. My mother, whenever possible, allows me to choose what to do.

6. My mother doesn’t seem to think of me often.

7. My mother clearly conveys her love for me.

8. My mother listens to my opinion or perspective when I’ve got a problem.

9. My mother spends a lot of time with me.

10. My mother makes me feel very special.

11. My mother allows me to decide things for myself.

12. My mother often seems too busy to attend to me.

13. My mother is often disapproving and unaccepting of me.

14. My mother insists upon my doing things her way.

15. My mother is not very involved with my concerns.

16. My mother is typically happy to see me.

17. My mother is usually willing to consider things from my point of view.

18. My mother puts time and energy into helping me.

19. My mother helps me to choose my own direction.

20. My mother seems to be disappointed in me a lot.

21. My mother isn’t very sensitive to many of my needs.

Now questions about your father.

22. My father seems to know how I feel about things.

23. My father tries to tell me how to run my life.

24. My father finds time to talk with me.

25. My father accepts me and likes me as I am.

26. My father, whenever possible, allows me to choose what to do.

27. My father doesn’t seem to think of me often.

28. My father clearly conveys his love for me.

29. My father listens to my opinion or perspective when I’ve got a problem.

30. My father spends a lot of time with me.

31. My father makes me feel very special.

32. My father allows me to decide things for myself.

33. My father often seems too busy to attend to me.

34. My father is often disapproving and unaccepting of me.

35. My father insists upon my doing things his way.

36. My father is not very involved with my concerns.

37. My father is typically happy to see me.

38. My father is usually willing to consider things from my point of view.

39. My father puts time and energy into helping me.

40. My father helps me to choose my own direction.

41. My father seems to be disappointed in me a lot.

42. My father isn’t very sensitive to many of my needs.

Scoring Information. First, scores on the following items must be reversed: 2, 6, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 21, 23, 27, 33, 34, 35, 36, 41, 42. To do that, subtract the response from 8 and use the result as the item score. Then form subscale scores by averaging the scores of the items on that subscale, as shown below.

Mother Involvement: 3, 6(R), 9, 12(R), 15(R), 18

Mother Autonomy Support: 1, 2(R), 5, 8, 11, 14(R), 17, 19, 21(R)

Mother Warmth: 4, 7, 10, 13(R), 16, 20(R)

Father Involvement: 24, 27(R), 30, 33(R), 36(R), 39

Father Autonomy Support: 22, 23(R), 26, 29, 32, 35(R), 38, 40, 42(R)

Father Warmth: 25, 28, 31, 34(R), 37, 41(R)

An (R) after an item number is simply a reminder that that item needs to be reverse scored before being averaged.