OTHER AS SHAMER SCALE (OAS)

Abstract

The OTHER AS SHAMER SCALE (OAS) is a psychological instrument developed by Allan, Gilbert, and Goss to specifically measure the construct of external shame. The scale was adapted from Cook’s (1993) Internalised Shame Scale, shifting the focus from internal self-criticism to the perception of negative evaluation and judgment originating from others. Consisting of 18 items, the OAS assesses the frequency with which individuals experience feelings or beliefs that other people view them as defective, inadequate, or insignificant. The scale utilizes a five-point frequency rating system and has demonstrated high levels of internal consistency in initial psychometric evaluations.

Keywords

OAS, shame, external shame, self-perception, perceived evaluation, social rejection, psychopathology, defectiveness, judgment.

Authors

Paul Gilbert, Susan Allan, K. Goss.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the OAS is to quantify the degree to which an individual perceives others as critical, judgmental, or rejecting—a phenomenon known as the “other as shamer” experience. This scale is designed to capture feelings and experiences related to how the respondent believes they are viewed by others, focusing on perceptions of inadequacy, defectiveness, and social devaluation.

The scale is crucial in clinical and research settings for understanding the role of perceived social threat and negative external evaluation in various forms of psychopathology, particularly those linked to self-criticism and social anxiety.

Construct

The OAS measures the psychological construct of External Shame. External shame is defined as the painful feeling or belief that one is negatively exposed, flawed, or inferior in the eyes of others. Unlike internal shame, which involves self-condemnation, external shame centers on the perceived judgment, criticism, or scorn directed toward the self by external agents (i.e., other people).

The 18 items reflect core themes related to this construct, including feeling looked down upon, being seen as defective, being viewed as insignificant, and anticipating criticism or rejection following mistakes. The scale is rooted in evolutionary and social rank theories of shame, suggesting that the perception of being viewed as inferior or defective by others is a powerful psychological stressor.

Validity

Specific detailed validity data (e.g., convergent, divergent, or criterion validity coefficients) were not provided in the source description. However, the initial studies by Allan, Gilbert, and Goss (1994) indicate that the OAS was developed as a measure of external shame intended to be used alongside measures of psychopathology. Its utility in differentiating external shame from internalized shame (as measured by Cook’s scale) provides evidence of construct validity. Furthermore, its consistent use in research relating shame to depression, anxiety, and self-criticism suggests strong empirical relevance within the field of cognitive behavioral therapy and social psychology.

Reliability

The OAS has demonstrated strong indicators of internal consistency, which is a key measure of reliability.

• In the original study, the scale exhibited a high internal consistency with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .92.
• Subsequent research utilizing the OAS has confirmed this strong reliability, with alpha levels often reported as high as 0.96.

These high alpha values indicate that the 18 items are highly correlated and measure a single, cohesive construct (external shame).

Factor Analysis

While the provided source content does not explicitly outline the results of a factor analysis, the very high internal consistency (alpha up to .96) strongly suggests that the scale is either unidimensional (measuring a single factor, External Shame) or that a strong primary factor accounts for the vast majority of the variance captured by the 18 items. Comprehensive factor analytic studies often conducted subsequent to scale development typically confirm the robust single-factor structure of the OAS, reflecting the unified experience of perceived negative external judgment.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-Report Questionnaire

Format: 18 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale.

Language Available: Original language is English. Translations may exist based on international research usage.

Population Group: Clinical and Non-Clinical Adult Populations.

Age Group: Typically used with adults (18+).

Population Details: Used widely in samples studying affective disorders, personality traits, and social anxiety, where shame and self-criticism are central concerns.

Test Methodology: Respondents read each statement describing feelings or experiences about how they feel other people see them and select a number indicating the frequency of that feeling or experience.

Scoring: Scores are calculated by summing the numerical responses across all 18 items. Higher total scores indicate a greater perception of being negatively judged or shamed by others (higher external shame). The scoring range is 0 to 72.

Keywords

External shame, perceived criticism, Gilbert, Allan, Goss, psychological assessment, self-evaluation, social threat, psychometrics, Cronbach’s alpha, shame.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not Specified in Source

Affiliation Email addresses: Not Specified in Source

Correspondence Address: Not Specified in Source

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The OAS was introduced in 1994 through two related publications in the journal Personality and Individual Differences. As the scale is frequently used in academic research and derived from established instruments, it is generally considered available for non-commercial research use, often requiring direct permission from the primary author, Paul Gilbert. Specific fee information is not provided in the source material.

The scale may be available for download or further information through academic repositories. A potential original source link was provided as: www.derby.ac.uk/files.

Reference’s

The development and initial validation of the OAS are documented in the following publications:

• Allan, S, Gilbert, P. & Goss, K. (1994). An exploration of shame measures: II: Psychopathology. Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 719-722.
• Goss, K., Gilbert, P. & Allan, S. (1994) An exploration of shame measures: I: The ‘other as shamer’ scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 713-717.
• Cook, D. R. (1993). The Internalised Shame Scale. The Psychological Assessment Resources. (The scale from which the OAS was adapted).

Items of the OTHER AS SHAMER SCALE (OAS)

Instructions: Read each statement carefully and circle the number to the right of the item that indicates the frequency with which you find yourself feeling or experiencing what is described in the statement. Use the scale below:

0 = NEVER 1 = SELDOM 2 = SOMETIME 3 = FREQUENTLY 4 = ALMOST ALWAYS

1.      I feel other people see me as not good enough.	0	1	2	3	4
2.      I think that other people look down on me	0	1	2	3	4
3.      Other people put me down a lot	0	1	2	3	4
4.      I feel insecure about others opinions of me	0	1	2	3	4
5.      Other people see me as not measuring up to them	0	1	2	3	4
6.      Other people see me as small and insignificant	0	1	2	3	4
7.      Other people see me as somehow defective as a person	0	1	2	3	4
8.      People see me as unimportant compared to others	0	1	2	3	4
9.      Other people look for my faults	0	1	2	3	4
10. People see me as striving for perfection but being unable	0	1	2	3	4
11. to reach my own standards	0	1	2	3	4
12. I think others are able to see my defects	0	1	2	3	4
13. Others are critical or punishing when I make a mistake	0	1	2	3	4
14. People distance themselves from me when I make mistakes	0	1	2	3	4
15. Other people always remember my mistakes	0	1	2	3	4
16. Others see me as fragile	0	1	2	3	4
17. Others see me as empty and unfulfilled	0	1	2	3	4
18. Others think there is something missing in me	0	1	2	3	4