Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS)

Abstract

The Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS) is a specialized, 45-item self-report psychological scale developed by Kevin L. Nadal in 2011. Its primary function is to quantify both the frequency and perceived severity of racial and ethnic microaggressions experienced by People of Color (P.O.C.). Moving beyond overt discrimination, the REMS captures subtle, often unconscious, verbal, behavioral, or environmental expressions of prejudice that communicate hostile and derogatory messages.

The instrument is structured around six distinct factors, providing researchers and clinical practitioners with a nuanced, empirical framework for understanding how the chronic, pervasive nature of racial slights affects individuals’ psychological health and overall well-being. The scale is a foundational tool for assessing the systemic impact of modern racism.

Keywords

Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale, REMS, Microaggressions, People of Color, Psychological Assessment, Subtle Discrimination, Racial Bias, Counseling Psychology.

Authors

Kevin L. Nadal, K. Davidoff, David Paul Rivera.

Purpose

The principal purpose of the REMS is to systematically operationalize and measure the exposure to and impact of racial and ethnic microaggressions across diverse populations. By assessing both the frequency and the perceived severity of these subtle slights, the scale provides essential empirical data necessary for understanding the systemic nature of modern racism and its profound consequences on minority populations.

The scale serves as a crucial research tool for identifying areas in institutional or social environments that require intervention and improvement to foster inclusivity and reduce racial bias. Furthermore, the REMS aids researchers in establishing correlations between chronic exposure to microaggressions and various negative health and mental health outcomes, such as stress, depression, and physical ailments, thereby highlighting the significant psychosocial burden carried by People of Color.

Construct

The REMS is specifically designed to measure the construct of racial and ethnic microaggressions. These are theoretically defined as brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, regardless of the perpetrator’s intent, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults toward minority groups. The scale captures the varied ways racial bias manifests, ranging from assumptions of intellectual inferiority to environmental exclusion.

The underlying psychological principle is that while macroaggressions (overt discrimination) are often easily recognizable, the cumulative effect of subtle, repeated microaggressions contributes significantly to chronic psychological distress, internalized oppression, and cumulative trauma for minority groups. The scale operationalizes this construct across its six empirically derived dimensions.

Validity

The original validation study of the REMS (Nadal, 2011) established strong evidence for both content and construct validity. **Content validity** was achieved through an extensive literature review and expert consultation process to ensure that the 45 items comprehensively covered the full theoretical domain of racial and ethnic microaggressions.

Further evidence of **construct validity** was supported by factor analysis, which successfully yielded six theoretically consistent subscales corresponding to distinct types of microaggressive experiences. Additionally, subsequent research (e.g., Nadal & Davidoff, 2012; Rivera, 2012) has demonstrated the scale’s ability to correlate significantly with established measures of psychological distress and negative health outcomes, confirming that the REMS effectively captures experiences linked to adverse psychological impact.

Reliability

The REMS demonstrates strong internal consistency, confirming its reliability as a measure of microaggressions. The six subscales resulting from the factor analysis all exhibited high Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, indicating that the items within each factor reliably measure the same underlying construct. The reliability coefficients reported by Nadal (2011) for the six factors were consistently high, ranging from 0.85 to 0.894, establishing the internal consistency necessary for robust psychological measurement.

Factor Analysis

The REMS utilizes a robust six-factor structure identified through exploratory factor analysis (Nadal, 2011). These factors categorize the diverse forms of microaggressions experienced by People of Color, allowing for differentiated assessment of specific types of racial slights. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each factor is detailed below:

• Assumptions of Inferiority: (Alpha = 0.894)
• Second-Class Citizen and Assumption of Criminality: (Alpha = 0.883)
• Microinvalidations: (Alpha = 0.888)
• Exoticization and Assumptions of Similarity: (Alpha = 0.852)
• Environmental Microaggressions: (Alpha = 0.85)
• Workplace and School Microaggressions: (Alpha = 0.85)

Instrument

Test Type: Self-Report Inventory / Psychometric Scale

Format: The scale consists of 45 items distributed across six factors. Responses are typically measured on a 6-point Likert scale.

Language Available: English (Primary publication language).

Population Group: People of Color (P.O.C.) who identify as members of racial or ethnic minority groups.

Age Group: Typically used with adult and young adult populations (college students and working adults).

Population Details: Designed to capture experiences across various racial and ethnic backgrounds, including but not limited to Asian Americans, Black/African Americans, Latina/o Americans, and Native Americans.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate how often they experienced each microaggressive statement in a specified timeframe (most commonly, the past six months). Scoring ranges from 1 (none of the time) to 6 (all of the time), providing a quantitative measure of exposure frequency.

Keywords

Racial bias, Diversity, Inclusion, Counseling, Prejudice, Psychological health, Scale validation, Cultural competence, Racism, Subtle discrimination.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Information not provided in source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: Information not provided in source content.

Correspondence Address: Information not provided in source content.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Test Year: 2011 (Original publication year of the scale development by Kevin L. Nadal).

Permissions and Fee: Permissions are typically required from the primary author, Kevin L. Nadal, for commercial or extensive academic use. Researchers should consult the original publication and author for specific usage guidelines.

The original PDF detailing the instrument’s construction, reliability, and validity can be downloaded here: Nadal (2011) PDF Link.

Reference’s

1. Nadal, K.L. (2011). The Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS): Construction, reliability, and validity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 470-480.
2. Nadal, K.L., & Davidoff, K. (2012). The impact of racial microaggressions on the physical health of people of Color. Kevin L. Nadal (Chair) symposium entitled The impact of racial microaggressions on physical and mental health: A review of quantitative research. Paper presented at the 29th Annual Winter Roundtable on Cultural Psychology & Education, New York, NY.
3. Rivera, David Paul. (2012). Microaggressions and Health Outcomes for Latina/o Americans: Understanding the Influences of External ch‎aracteristics and Psychological Resources. Columbia University. Doctoral Dissertation. http://hdl.handle.net/10022/AC:P:14491

Items of the Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS)

Response Scale: 1 = none of the time, 2 = a little bit of the time, 3 = some of the time, 4 = a good bit of the time, 5 = most of the time, 6 = all of the time

Timeframe: In the past six months

1. I was ignored at school or at work because of my race.
2. Someone’s body language showed they were scared of me, because of my race.
3. Someone assumed that I spoke a language other than English.
4. I was told that I should not complain about race.
5. Someone assumed that I grew up in a particular neighborhood because of my race.
6. Someone avoided walking near me on the street because of my race.
7. Someone told me that she or he was colorblind.
8. Someone avoided sitting next to me in a public space (e.g., restaurants, movie theaters, subways, buses) because of my race.
9. Someone assumed that I would not be intelligent because of my race.
10. I was told that I complain about race too much.
11. I received substandard service in stores compared to customers of other racial groups.
12. I observed people of my race in prominent positions at my workplace or school.
13. Someone wanted to date me only because of my race.
14. I was told that people of all racial groups experience the same obstacles.
15. My opinion was overlooked in a group discussion because of my race.
16. Someone assumed that my work would be inferior to people of other racial groups.
17. Someone acted surprised at my scholastic or professional success because of my race.
18. I observed that people of my race were the CEOs of major corporations.
19. I observed people of my race portrayed positively on television.
20. Someone did not believe me when I told them I was born in the US.
21. Someone assumed that I would not be educated because of my race.
22. Someone told me that I was “articulate” after she/he assumed I wouldn’t be.
23. Someone told me that all people in my racial group are all the same.
24. I observed people of my race portrayed positively in magazines.
25. An employer or co-worker was unfriendly or unwelcoming toward me because of my race.
26. I was told that people of color do not experience racism anymore.
27. Someone told me that they “don’t see color.”
28. I read popular books or magazines in which a majority of contributions featured people from my racial group.
29. Someone asked me to teach them words in my “native language.”
30. Someone told me that they do not see race.
31. Someone clenched her/his purse or wallet upon seeing me because of my race.
32. Someone assumed that I would have a lower education because of my race.
33. Someone of a different racial group has stated that there is no difference between the two of us.
34. Someone assumed that I would physically hurt them because of my race.
35. Someone assumed that I ate foods associated with my race/culture every day.
36. Someone assumed that I held a lower paying job because of my race.
37. I observed people of my race portrayed positively in movies.
38. Someone assumed that I was poor because of my race.
39. Someone told me that people should not think about race anymore.
40. Someone avoided eye contact with me because of my race.
41. I observed that someone of my race is a government official in my state.
42. Someone told me that all people in my racial group look alike.
43. Someone objectified one of my physical features because of my race.
44. An employer or co-worker treated me differently than White co-workers.
45. Someone assumed that I speak similar languages to other people in my race.

Factor Groupings:

• Assumptions of Inferiority: (items: 5, 9, 17, 21, 22, 32, 36, and 38)
• Second-Class Citizen and Assumption of Criminality: (items: 2, 6, 8, 11, 31, 34, and 40)
• Microinvalidations: (items: 4, 7, 10, 14, 26, 27, 30, 33, and 39)
• Exoticization and Assumptions of Similarity: (items: 3, 13, 20, 23, 29, 35, 42, 43, and 45)
• Environmental Microaggressions: (items: 12, 18, 19, 24, 28, 37, and 41)
• Workplace and School Microaggressions: (items: 1, 15, 16, 25, and 44)