Procrastination Scale for Student Populations

Abstract

The Procrastination Scale, developed by Clarry Lay in 1986, is a foundational self-report instrument designed to measure the general tendency toward procrastination. This specific 20-item version is validated and tailored for use within student populations, focusing on behavioral patterns related to academic task management, deadlines, and general promptness in daily life. It utilizes a 5-point Likert scale format to quantify individual differences in the delay of intended actions, serving as a critical tool in educational and psychological research.

Keywords

Procrastination, Lay, 1986, self-report scale, behavioral delay, academic behavior, student populations, time management, trait assessment.

Authors

Clarry Lay.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Procrastination Scale (Lay, 1986) is to quantify the frequency and intensity of behavioral procrastination as a stable personality trait. It was created to provide a standardized, psychometrically sound measure capable of distinguishing between high and low procrastinators, particularly in environments where complex deadlines and self-regulated learning are essential, such as university or college settings.

This instrument enables researchers to examine the relationship between chronic procrastination tendencies and various psychological variables, including personality traits (such as conscientiousness), motivation, self-efficacy, and critical academic outcomes like course completion rates and grade point averages (GPA).

Construct

The psychological construct measured is trait procrastination, which is operationalized as the consistent, irrational delay of an intended and necessary course of action, often resulting in subjective discomfort or objective negative consequences. Lay’s conceptualization focuses on the observable behavioral habit of postponing tasks rather than the underlying cognitive or emotional causes.

The scale items assess the manifestation of this trait across various life domains, including schoolwork, household chores, and social responsibilities. By emphasizing consistent behavioral patterns, the scale effectively captures the pervasive nature of procrastination, making it a reliable predictor of performance across different academic demands.

Validity

The original validity evidence for the Procrastination Scale is detailed in Lay’s foundational 1986 article. Subsequent studies consistently report strong evidence of construct validity, demonstrated through the scale’s significant negative correlations with established personality dimensions, particularly measures of conscientiousness and self-discipline. Conversely, it shows positive correlations with measures of impulsivity and disorganized behavior.

Furthermore, the scale exhibits predictive validity, consistently correlating negatively with actual academic performance indicators, such as course grades and timely submission rates. The scale’s established ability to differentiate reliably between individuals who report high levels of delay and those who exhibit high levels of promptness supports its robust psychometric utility in academic research.

Reliability

The reliability of the Procrastination Scale is generally high, indicating that the instrument provides stable and consistent measurements of the underlying trait. Internal consistency is typically assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, which usually fall within the acceptable range of 0.80 to 0.85 in most student samples (Lay, 1986).

Studies examining test-retest reliability over periods ranging from a few weeks to several months have also demonstrated high stability. This suggests that the scale measures a relatively enduring trait rather than a transient state. The consistent reliability across numerous replication studies reinforces the scale’s utility for longitudinal research.

Factor Analysis

The Procrastination Scale (Lay, 1986) is predominantly conceptualized and scored as a unidimensional scale. The initial exploratory factor analysis conducted by Lay indicated that the 20 items loaded strongly onto a single primary factor, representing the global tendency toward behavioral delay.

While some later investigations have explored potential sub-factors related to distinct domains (e.g., academic versus non-academic procrastination), the primary application and scoring methodology of the scale remain focused on generating a comprehensive total score based on the strong overall factor structure.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire / Trait assessment

Format: 5-point Likert scale, where respondents indicate how characteristic each statement is of them. The scale ranges from 1 (Extremely Uncharacteristic) to 5 (Extremely Characteristic). Scoring requires reverse-keying 10 specific items.

Language Available: English (Original). Translations are widely available due to its extensive use in international academic research.

Population Group: Non-clinical; Specifically validated for student populations (college and university students).

Age Group: Adolescents and Adults (typically 17 years and older).

Population Details: This version contains five items indicated by an asterisk (*) that differentiate it from the non-student form, ensuring maximal relevance to the academic context.

Test Methodology: Standardized paper-and-pencil or digital administration. The total score is calculated by summing the scores of the 20 items after adjusting for the reverse-keyed items.

Keywords

Psychometrics, internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha, unidimensional, academic psychology, behavioral assessment, self-regulation, delay.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not provided.

Affiliation Email addresses: [email protected] (Email address for current scale maintenance/inquiries, Ronald Okada).

Correspondence Address: Ronald Okada, Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M3J 1P3.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was first published in 1986. As a widely used and seminal academic instrument, the scale is generally available for non-commercial research and educational use without a fee, provided the original publication (Lay, 1986) is properly cited. Users should adhere to standard academic citation practices when utilizing the instrument.

Reference’s

Lay, C. (1986). At last, my research article on procrastination. Journal of Research in Personality, 20, 474-495.

Further information regarding the scale’s maintenance is provided by Ron Okada, Emeritus Professor of Psychology, Faculty of Health, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M3J 1P3. Email: [email protected].

Items of the Procrastination Scale For student populations

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

Instructions: People may use the following statements to describe themselves. For each statement, decide whether the statement is uncharacteristic or characteristic of you using the following 5 point scale. Note that the 3 on the scale is Neutral – the statement is neither characteristic nor uncharacteristic of you.

Scale:

• 1: Extremely Uncharacteristic
• 2: Moderately Uncharacteristic
• 3: Neutral
• 4: Moderately Characteristic
• 5: Extremely Characteristic

Scale Items:

1. I often find myself performing tasks that I had intended to do days before.
2. I do not do assignments until just before they are to be handed in. (*)
3. When I am finished with a library book, I return it right away regardless of the date it is due. (*)
4. When it is time to get up in the morning, I most often get right out of bed.
5. A letter may sit for days after I write it before mailing it.
6. I generally return phone calls promptly.
7. Even with jobs that require little else except sitting down and doing them, I find they seldom get done for days.
8. I usually make decisions as soon as possible.
9. I generally delay before starting on work I have to do.
10. I usually have to rush to complete a task on time. (*)
11. When preparing to go out, I am seldom caught having to do something at the last minute.
12. In preparing for some deadline, I often waste time by doing other things.
13. I prefer to leave early for an appointment. (*)
14. I usually start an assignment shortly after it is assigned. (*)
15. I often have a task finished sooner than necessary.
16. I always seem to end up shopping for birthday or Christmas gifts at the last minute.
17. I usually buy even an essential item at the last minute.
18. I usually accomplish all the things I plan to do in a day.
19. I am continually saying “I’ll do it tomorrow”.
20. I usually take care of all the tasks I have to do before I settle down and relax for the evening.

Note: Reversed-keyed items: 3, 4, 6, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20.

Note: * indicates items that differ from student to non-student forms.