Perceptions of Parents Scales – The College-Student Scale (POPS)

Abstract

The Perceptions of Parents Scales – The College-Student Scale (POPS) is a specialized psychological scale designed to measure young adults’ subjective evaluations of their relationships with their mother and father. This self-report instrument assesses critical dimensions of parenting styles, focusing primarily on perceived parental acceptance, involvement, and the degree of autonomy support or control experienced by the college student. The scale is structured to capture distinct perceptions of both maternal and paternal figures, allowing researchers to examine differential parenting influences during the transition to emerging adulthood.

It utilizes a detailed Likert scale format, requiring respondents to rate the truthfulness of various statements regarding their parents’ behavior and emotional availability. The POPS is widely used in developmental and educational psychology research to link perceived parental behavior to student outcomes such as academic performance, psychological adjustment, and motivational profiles, often grounded in the principles of Self-Determination Theory (SDT).

Keywords

Parental Perception, College Students, Autonomy Support, Parental Involvement, Psychological Assessment, Emerging Adulthood, Self-Determination Theory, Family Dynamics

Authors

Wendy S. Grolnick, Richard M. Ryan

Purpose

The primary purpose of the POPS is to systematically quantify the quality of the parent-child relationship as perceived by the young adult residing in a college setting. The scale serves to operationalize complex relational constructs—such as emotional warmth, acceptance, and the granting of independence—which are crucial determinants of identity formation and successful transition into adult roles. By separating perceptions of the mother and the father, the scale enables nuanced research into the unique contributions of each parental figure to the student’s psychological well-being and motivational orientation.

Furthermore, the scale aims to provide a robust measure sensitive enough to detect variations in perceived parenting styles that correlate with academic engagement, intrinsic motivation, and adjustment difficulties typical of the college years. The POPS is a valuable tool for studies investigating how perceived parental control or lack of involvement might impede psychological growth and autonomous functioning in emerging adults.

Construct

The POPS scale is fundamentally rooted in constructs related to perceived parenting dimensions, typically converging into three core factors, consistent with research on motivational climate and competence. These constructs capture the student’s subjective experience of parental behavior, rather than objective behavior itself, which is crucial for predicting psychological outcomes.

• Involvement/Acceptance: This dimension measures the perceived degree of parental emotional warmth, availability, engagement with the student’s concerns, and unconditional acceptance (e.g., “My mother accepts me and likes me as I am”). High scores reflect a strong sense of being loved, valued, and attended to.
• Autonomy Support: This construct assesses the extent to which parents encourage self-initiation, independent decision-making, and consideration of the student’s perspective (e.g., “My father allows me to decide things for myself”). This is a key component derived from Self-Determination Theory.
• Psychological Control/Rejection: Items measuring this dimension reflect perceived intrusive behavior, disapproval, insistence on parental ways, and emotional unavailability (e.g., “My mother tries to tell me how to run my life”). This dimension is typically associated with maladjustment and lower intrinsic motivation.

Validity

Studies utilizing the POPS and its related measures generally demonstrate strong evidence of construct validity. The scale items consistently load onto the theoretically derived factors (Involvement, Autonomy Support, and Control), confirming that it measures the intended dimensions of perceived parenting. Convergent validity is typically established through positive correlations between the Involvement/Acceptance subscale and measures of warmth, attachment security, and self-esteem. Conversely, the Control/Rejection subscale shows positive correlations with measures of anxiety, depression, and externalized behavioral problems.

Discriminant validity is evidenced by low correlations between the POPS subscales and measures of unrelated psychological constructs. Furthermore, the scale demonstrates ecological validity, as perceived high autonomy support and involvement measured by the POPS are reliably linked to positive real-world outcomes, such as higher academic achievement and greater psychological maturity among college students.

Reliability

The internal consistency of the POPS subscales is generally reported as high, indicating that the items within each subscale reliably measure the same underlying construct. Typical Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the Involvement/Acceptance and Autonomy Support subscales often exceed .80, demonstrating excellent reliability across different college student populations. The Control/Rejection subscale also typically exhibits acceptable reliability, often ranging above .70.

Test-retest reliability, although less frequently published for this specific version, is expected to be moderate to high over short intervals (e.g., 4-6 weeks), reflecting the stable nature of perceived long-term parent-child relationships, especially once the individual has reached emerging adulthood.

Factor Analysis

Exploratory and confirmatory Factor analysis typically confirms a multi-dimensional structure for the POPS. Researchers usually identify three distinct factors for both mother and father scales: Involvement/Acceptance, Autonomy Support, and Control/Rejection. This clear three-factor structure supports the theoretical framework that parental behavior is not unidimensional but rather comprised of separable components that independently influence child development.

The factor structure remains robust across various cultural and demographic groups of college students, although specific item loadings may vary slightly. The separation of the mother and father scales is critical, as factor analysis consistently demonstrates that students perceive maternal and paternal behaviors distinctly, necessitating separate scoring and analysis for each parent.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report psychological scale

Format: 42 items (21 items for the mother, 21 parallel items for the father), utilizing a 7-point Likert scale.

Language Available: Primarily English (Original), translations may exist in academic literature.

Population Group: College students and young adults.

Age Group: Typically 18 to 25 years old (Emerging adulthood).

Population Details: Individuals currently enrolled in higher education or those within the traditional age range for college attendance, capable of reading and interpreting the instructions and items.

Test Methodology: Respondents rate statements based on how true they feel the statement is regarding their relationship with each parent, using a scale ranging from 1 (“not at all true”) to 7 (“very true”). Instructions allow for substitution (e.g., stepfather) or omission if no parental figure is present.

Keywords

Parenting Styles, Parental Acceptance, Autonomy Granting, Psychological Control, University Students, Self-Report Instrument, Psychometrics, Affective Relationship

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A (Information must be sourced externally)

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A (Information must be sourced externally)

Correspondence Address: N/A (Information must be sourced externally)

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The POPS scale is commonly used for non-commercial academic research and is often available in the public domain or through direct permission from the original authors or their institutional affiliations. Specific fees for commercial use would need to be determined by contacting the authors or copyright holders. The original foundational work for the Perceptions of Parents Scales, upon which this college version is based, dates back to the late 1980s and early 1990s, notably associated with research by Grolnick and Ryan (e.g., 1989, 1991).

Reference’s

The scale items and structure are highly consistent with measures developed in the context of Self-Determination Theory. Key references often include:

• Grolnick, W. S., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1991). Inner resources for school achievement: Motivational mediators of children’s perceptions of their parents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(4), 508–517.
• Grolnick, W. S., & Ryan, R. M. (1989). Parent styles associated with children’s self-regulation and competence in school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(2), 143–154.

Items of the Perceptions of Parents Scales – The College-Student Scale(POPS)

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

The College-Student Scale

Thoughts about My Parents

Please answer the following questions about your mother and your father. If you do not have any contact with one of your parents (for example‚ your father)‚ but there is another adult of the same gender living with your house (for example‚ a stepfather) then please answer the questions about that other adult.

If you have no contact with one of your parents‚ and there is not another adult of that same gender with whom you live‚ then leave the questions about that parent blank.

Please use the following scale: 1 (not at all true) to 7 (very true), with 4 being (somewhat true).

First‚ questions about your mother.

1. My mother seems to know how I feel about things.
2. My mother tries to tell me how to run my life.
3. My mother finds time to talk with me.
4. My mother accepts me and likes me as I am.
5. My mother‚ whenever possible‚ allows me to choose what to do.
6. My mother doesn’t seem to think of me often.
7. My mother clearly conveys her love for me.
8. My mother listens to my opinion or perspective when I’ve got a problem.
9. My mother spends a lot of time with me.
10. My mother makes me feel very special.
11. My mother allows me to decide things for myself.
12. My mother often seems too busy to attend to me.
13. My mother is often disapproving and unaccepting of me.
14. My mother insists upon my doing things her way.
15. My mother is not very involved with my concerns.
16. My mother is typically happy to see me.
17. My mother is usually willing to consider things from my point of view.
18. My mother puts time and energy into helping me.
19. My mother helps me to choose my own direction.
20. My mother seems to be disappointed in me a lot.
21. My mother isn’t very sensitive to many of my needs.

Now questions about your father.

22. My father seems to know how I feel about things.
23. My father tries to tell me how to run my life.
24. My father finds time to talk with me.
25. My father accepts me and likes me as I am.
26. My father‚ whenever possible‚ allows me to choose what to do.
27. My father doesn’t seem to think of me often.
28. My father clearly conveys his love for me.
29. My father listens to my opinion or perspective when I’ve got a problem.
30. My father spends a lot of time with me.
31. My father makes me feel very special.
32. My father allows me to decide things for myself.
33. My father often seems too busy to attend to me.
34. My father is often disapproving and unaccepting of me.
35. My father insists upon my doing things his way.
36. My father is not very involved with my concerns.
37. My father is typically happy to see me.
38. My father is usually willing to consider things from my point of view.
39. My father puts time and energy into helping me.
40. My father helps me to choose my own direction.
41. My father seems to be disappointed in me a lot.
42. My father isn’t very sensitive to many of my needs.