Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey (BBTS)

Abstract

The Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey (BBTS) is a specialized instrument developed by Goldberg and Freyd (2006) to measure exposure to traumatic events, specifically distinguishing events involving a **betrayal of trust** from non-betrayal events. Rooted in Betrayal Trauma Theory (BTT), the BBTS assesses the impact of harm based on two dimensions: life threat and social betrayal. The scale consists of 24 items designed to categorize trauma exposure across four critical dimensions: interpersonal versus non-interpersonal events, proximity of the perpetrator (close relationship vs. distant), age of occurrence (childhood vs. adulthood), and the nature of the abuse (physical, sexual, or emotional).

Keywords

Betrayal Trauma Theory, Trauma exposure, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), childhood abuse, interpersonal violence, dissociation, psychological assessment, psychometrics.

Authors

L.R. Goldberg, J.J. Freyd.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the BBTS is to provide a brief, standardized measure capable of discriminating between various types of potentially traumatic experiences, a capability that was lacking in previous trauma history instruments. Specifically, the BBTS operationalizes key aspects of Betrayal Trauma Theory by focusing on the relationship context of the trauma.

The tool is designed to identify and distinguish four distinct categories of traumatic events related to betrayal: 1) **Interpersonal events** versus **non-interpersonal events**; 2) **Betrayal events** (perpetrator in a close relationship, such as a caregiver) versus other interpersonal events (perpetrator not closely related); 3) **Childhood events** versus **adult events**; and 4) Specific types of maltreatment, including **physical, sexual, and emotional abuse**.

Construct

The BBTS measures exposure to traumatic events categorized according to the theoretical framework of Betrayal Trauma Theory (BTT). BTT posits that trauma involving a betrayal of trust by a close, usually dependent, relationship figure (e.g., a caregiver) leads to unique psychological outcomes compared to trauma without betrayal.

The construct is dimensionalized into two core types of harm: **Life Threat** (predicted to cause symptoms like anxiety and hyper-arousal) and **Social Betrayal** (predicted to cause symptoms like dissociation, emotional numbness, and depression). The BBTS captures the frequency and type of exposure necessary to categorize individuals along these betrayal dimensions, which are crucial for understanding symptoms related to PTSD and related disorders.

Validity

The validity of the BBTS is primarily rooted in its theoretical foundation in Betrayal Trauma Theory, which emphasizes that the relationship between the victim and perpetrator dictates the nature of the psychological consequences. By systematically categorizing events based on the closeness of the perpetrator, the BBTS achieves a high degree of **construct validity** related to the theory it is designed to test.

The ability of the scale to successfully discriminate between high-betrayal events (e.g., abuse by a caregiver) and low-betrayal events (e.g., natural disasters) allows researchers to differentially predict outcomes such as dissociation versus hyper-arousal, providing evidence of criterion validity in clinical research.

Reliability

The primary psychometric details concerning the reliability of the BBTS are found in the initial publication by Goldberg and Freyd (2006). This study focused on assessing the **test-retest stabilities** of the individual items within an adult community sample. High item stability over time indicates that the self-reports of exposure to these specific traumatic events are consistent and reliable measures of history.

For detailed psychometric information, researchers are directed to the source article: Goldberg, L.R. & Freyd, J.J. (2006). Self-reports of potentially traumatic experiences in an adult community sample: Gender differences and test-retest stabilities of the items in a Brief Betrayal-Trauma Survey. **Journal of Trauma & Dissociation**, **7**(3), 39-63.

Factor Analysis

While the BBTS does not rely on a classical factor analysis for its primary scoring, its utility lies in the predefined categorization of items based on the theoretical dimension of betrayal. Scoring the BBTS involves grouping items into subscales reflecting varying degrees of betrayal exposure, which function similarly to factor-derived scores in predicting outcomes such as dissociation or anxiety.

Two major categorization schemes have been suggested for creating subscales: 1) **Three Scales** (High, Medium, and Low Betrayal) or 2) **Two Scales** (High/More Betrayal and Low/Less Betrayal). These classifications allow researchers to test the central hypotheses of BTT by comparing groups based on the level of betrayal experienced, demonstrating the scale’s inherent structure based on interpersonal context.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-Report Questionnaire (Trauma History Screening)

Format: 24 items. Each item assesses two time periods (before age 18 and age 18 or older). Response choices are categorical: **never**, **1 or 2 times**, or **more than that**.

Language Available: English (Primary research language).

Population Group: General adult community samples and clinical populations specializing in trauma.

Age Group: Measures exposure across the lifespan (childhood and adulthood).

Population Details: Originally validated on an adult community sample.

Test Methodology: Retrospective self-report of exposure to potentially traumatic events, categorized by the level of interpersonal betrayal.

Keywords

Child abuse, caregiver abuse, emotional trauma, sexual assault, test-retest stability, psychometrics, psychological distress.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: N/A (Information not provided in source)

Affiliation Email addresses: N/A (Information not provided in source)

Correspondence Address: N/A (Information not provided in source)

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The BBTS was first published and detailed in 2006 (Goldberg & Freyd). As an academic instrument, it is generally utilized freely for research purposes, contingent upon proper citation of the primary reference. The original instrument and scoring guidelines are widely available in academic literature.

Reference’s

Goldberg, L.R. & Freyd, J.J. (2006). Self-reports of potentially traumatic experiences in an adult community sample: Gender differences and test-retest stabilities of the items in a Brief Betrayal-Trauma Survey. **Journal of Trauma & Dissociation**, **7**(3), 39-63.

Freyd, J.J. & Goldberg, L.R. (2004) Gender difference in exposure to betrayal trauma. Presentation at the 20th Annual Meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, New Orleans, LA, November 14-18, 2004.

Freyd, J.J., Klest, B., & Allard, C.B. (2005). Betrayal trauma: Relationship to physical health, psychological distress, and a written disclosure intervention. **Journal of Trauma & Dissociation**, **6**(3), 83-104.

Cromer, L.D. & Freyd, J.J. (2007). What influences believing abuse reports? The roles of depicted memory persistence, participant gender, trauma history, and sexism. **Psychology of Women’s Quarterly**, 3, 13-22.

Becker-Blease, K.A. & Freyd, J.J. (2008). A Preliminary Study of ADHD Symptoms and Correlates: Do Abused Children Differ from Non-Abused Children? **Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma**, **17**(1), 133-140.

Gobin, R.L. & Freyd, J.J. (2009). Betrayal and revictimization: Preliminary findings. **Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy**, **1**, 242-257.

Kaehler, L.A. & Freyd, J.J. (2009). Borderline personality characteristics: A betrayal trauma approach. **Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy**, **1**, 261-268.

Hulette, A.C., Kaehler, L.A., & Freyd, J.J. (2011). Intergenerational Associations between Trauma and Dissociation. **Journal of Family Violence**, 26, 217-225.

Items of the Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey (BBTS)

For each item below subjects report on exposure “before age 18” (the lower item number, i.e. 1-12) and “age 18 or older” (the higher item number, i.e. 13-24). Reponse choices are: never, 1 or 2 times, more than that

1/13. Been in a major earthquake, fire, flood, hurricane, or tornado that resulted in significant loss of personal property, serious injury to yourself or a significant other, the death of a significant other, or the fear of your own death.

2/14. Been in a major automobile, boat, motorcycle, plane, train, or industrial accident that resulted in similar consequences.

3/15. Witnessed someone with whom you were very close (such as a parent, brother or sister, caretaker, or intimate partner) committing suicide, being killed, or being injured by another person so severely as to result in marks, bruises, burns, blood, or broken bones. This might include a close friend in combat.

4/16. Witnessed someone with whom you were not so close undergoing a similar kind of traumatic event.

5/17. Witnessed someone with whom you were very close deliberately attack another family member so severely as to result in marks, bruises, blood, broken bones, or broken teeth.

6/18. You were deliberately attacked that severely by someone with whom you were very close.

7/19. You were deliberately attacked that severely by someone with whom you were not close.

8/20. You were made to have some form of sexual contact, such as touching or penetration, by someone with whom you were very close (such as a parent or lover).

9/21. You were made to have such sexual contact by someone with whom you were not close

10/22. You were emotionally or psychologically mistreated over a significant period of time by someone with whom you were very close (such as a parent or lover).

11/23. Experienced the death of one of your own children.

12/24. Experienced a seriously traumatic event not already covered in any of these questions.