Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale (LCE)

Abstract

The Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale (LCE) is a concise, three-item self-report measure developed to assess the perceived source of motivation for engagement in physical activity. Grounded firmly in Self-Determination Theory (SDT), the LCE evaluates the degree to which exercise behavior is regulated autonomously (internal locus) versus controlled by external or internal pressures (external locus).

The scale serves as a rapid psychometric tool, particularly valuable in applied and clinical settings where quick assessment of motivational quality is needed to predict critical outcomes such as adherence, persistence, and psychological well-being among individuals engaging in exercise programs.

Keywords

Locus of Causality, Self-Determination Theory, Exercise Motivation, Controlled Motivation, Intrinsic Motivation, Physical Activity, Adherence, Psychometrics.

Authors

David Markland, J. Edmunds, N. Ntoumanis, J.L. Duda.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the LCE is to provide a brief, theoretically sound measure of motivational quality specifically within the domain of physical exercise. It aims to quantify the degree of internalization of exercise regulation, differentiating between individuals who feel compelled to exercise and those who choose to exercise autonomously.

This instrument is utilized by researchers to establish links between the quality of motivation and long-term behavioral outcomes, such as sustained participation in exercise referral schemes, body weight management, and overall psychological adjustment related to health behavior change.

Construct

The LCE is designed to measure the Locus of Causality (LOC), which anchors the motivational continuum defined by Self-Determination Theory (SDT). The LOC describes whether an individual perceives the initiation and maintenance of a behavior as stemming from an internal (autonomous) or external (controlled) source.

The items of the LCE specifically target the distinction between Intrinsic Motivation/Identified Regulation (autonomous forms) and Introjected/External Regulation (controlled motivation). By focusing on feelings of obligation or necessity (“ought to do,” “has to be done”), the scale effectively captures the variance associated with the less internalized, controlled end of the motivational spectrum for exercise.

Validity

The construct validity of the LCE is supported through its consistent utilization in studies adhering to the SDT framework. Research has demonstrated strong correlations between LCE scores and other established measures of behavioral regulation, such as the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ).

Furthermore, the scale exhibits predictive validity, consistently showing that a more external or controlled motivation (as measured by the LCE) is associated with negative outcomes, including lower levels of exercise adherence, reduced psychological well-being, and poorer maintenance of health goals, particularly in clinical populations receiving prescriptive exercise.

Reliability

As a highly brief measure, the LCE demonstrates acceptable levels of internal consistency (reliability) suitable for a scale designed to capture a single, focused motivational dimension. Although consisting of only three items, its concise nature allows it to serve as an efficient and stable indicator of motivational quality.

Studies employing the LCE have also reported evidence of test-retest reliability, indicating that the measure provides consistent results over time, suggesting that the scale captures a stable individual difference in the perceived Locus of Causality for exercise behavior.

Factor Analysis

The Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale is conceptualized and statistically validated as a unidimensional instrument. Factor analysis typically confirms a single latent factor, which represents the overall degree of perceived autonomy versus control regarding exercise participation.

This single-factor structure allows the LCE to function as a direct, simplified index of motivational internalization, often used as a proxy for the Relative Autonomy Index (RAI) in situations where a comprehensive assessment of all sub-regulations of motivation is impractical or unnecessary.

Instrument

Test Type: Self-report questionnaire/Motivational index

Format: Brief, 3-item rating scale utilizing a 7-point Likert response format.

Language Available: English (Original). It has been adapted and used in various other languages, including Portuguese.

Population Group: General population, frequently employed with clinical groups such as overweight and obese patients, and clients in exercise referral schemes.

Age Group: Typically utilized with adult populations (18+), but applicable to older adolescents.

Population Details: Used to assess motivation across different contexts of physical activity, ranging from leisure exercise to medically prescribed programs.

Test Methodology: Respondents indicate their level of agreement with each statement on a scale of 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 7 (“Strongly agree”). Items 2 and 3 are reverse-scored, and the scores are summed to yield a final measure of the internalized Locus of Causality, where higher scores reflect greater autonomy.

Keywords

Psychological Needs, Exercise Adherence, Behavioral Regulation, Sport Psychology, Health Promotion, Controlled Motivation, Autonomy Support.

Authors

Author ORCID Identifier: Not specified in source content.

Affiliation Email addresses: Refer to corresponding author in primary publications (e.g., D. Markland, Bangor University).

Correspondence Address: Not specified in source content.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The LCE is an academic instrument based on established psychological theory. It is generally available for use in non-commercial academic research without a specific fee. Researchers should, however, cite the primary source publications when utilizing the scale. The earliest cited use and validation of the scale structure date back to research conducted in the late 1990s (e.g., Markland, 1999).

Reference’s

• Edmunds, J., Ntoumanis, N., & Duda, J.L. (2007). Adherence and well-being in overweight and obese patients referred to an exercise on prescription scheme: A self-determination theory perspective. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 722–740. Abstract available here: http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/ha‎vingpes004/exercise_motivation/lce/lceabs.htm
• Markland, D. (1999). Self-determination moderates the effects of perceived competence on intrinsic motivation in an exercise setting. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 21, 350-360. Abstract available here: http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/ha‎vingpes004/exercise_motivation/lce/lceabs.htm#L1. The original PDF can be downloaded here: full text (pdf) For personal use only
• Markland, D. & Hardy, L. (1997). On the factorial and construct validity of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory: Conceptual and operational concerns. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 68, 20-32.
• Markland, D. & Tobin, V.J. (2010). Need support and behavioural regulations for exercise among exercise referral scheme clients: The mediating role of psychological need satisfaction. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 91-99.
• Silva, M.N., Markland, D.A., Minderico, C.S., Vieira, P.N., Castro, M.M., Coutinho, S.R., Santos, T.C., Matos. M.G., Sardinha, L.B. & Teixeira, P.J. (2008). A randomized controlled trial to evaluate Self-Determination Theory for exercise adherence and weight control: Rationale and intervention description. BMC Public Health, 8, 234. Abstract available here: http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/ha‎vingpes004/exercise_motivation/lce/lceabs.htm#L4. The original PDF can be downloaded here: full text (pdf) For personal use only
• Silva, M.N., Markland, D.A., Vieira, P.N., Coutinho, S.R., Carraca, E.V., Palmeira, A.L., Minderico, C.S., Matos. M.G., Sardinha, L.B. & Teixeira, P.J. (In press). Helping overweight women become more active: Need support and motivational regulations for different forms of physical activity. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. Abstract available here: http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/ha‎vingpes004/exercise_motivation/lce/lceabs.htm#L5. The original PDF can be downloaded here: full text (pdf) For personal use only

Items of the Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale (LCE)

IMPORTANT: The following scale items must be preserved in their original language and must not be changed in any way.

1.    I exercise because I like to rather than because I feel I have

2.    Exercising is not something I would necessarily choose to do, rather it is something that I feel I ought to do

3.    ha‎ving to exercise is a bit of a bind but it has to be done

Scoring:

1 = “Strongly disagree” to 7 = “Strongly agree”

Reverse scores on items two and three